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4.3 Special Methods
Various parts of Python’s behavior can be customized via special or so-called “magic” methods. This section introduces that idea. In addition dynamic attribute access and bound methods are discussed.
Introduction
Classes may define special methods. These have special meaning to the
Python interpreter. They are always preceded and followed by
__. For example __init__.
class Stock(object):
def __init__(self):
...
def __repr__(self):
...
There are dozens of special methods, but we will only look at a few specific examples.
Special methods for String Conversions
Objects have two string representations.
>>> from datetime import date
>>> d = date(2012, 12, 21)
>>> print(d)
2012-12-21
>>> d
datetime.date(2012, 12, 21)
>>>
The str() function is used to create a nice printable output:
>>> str(d)
'2012-12-21'
>>>
The repr() function is used to create a more detailed representation
for programmers.
>>> repr(d)
'datetime.date(2012, 12, 21)'
>>>
Those functions, str() and repr(), use a pair of special methods
in the class to produce the string to be displayed.
class Date(object):
def __init__(self, year, month, day):
self.year = year
self.month = month
self.day = day
# Used with `str()`
def __str__(self):
return f'{self.year}-{self.month}-{self.day}'
# Used with `repr()`
def __repr__(self):
return f'Date({self.year},{self.month},{self.day})'
Note: The convention for __repr__() is to return a string that,
when fed to eval(), will recreate the underlying object. If this
is not possible, some kind of easily readable representation is used
instead.
Special Methods for Mathematics
Mathematical operators involve calls to the following methods.
a + b a.__add__(b)
a - b a.__sub__(b)
a * b a.__mul__(b)
a / b a.__truediv__(b)
a // b a.__floordiv__(b)
a % b a.__mod__(b)
a << b a.__lshift__(b)
a >> b a.__rshift__(b)
a & b a.__and__(b)
a | b a.__or__(b)
a ^ b a.__xor__(b)
a ** b a.__pow__(b)
-a a.__neg__()
~a a.__invert__()
abs(a) a.__abs__()
Special Methods for Item Access
These are the methods to implement containers.
len(x) x.__len__()
x[a] x.__getitem__(a)
x[a] = v x.__setitem__(a,v)
del x[a] x.__delitem__(a)
You can use them in your classes.
class Sequence:
def __len__(self):
...
def __getitem__(self,a):
...
def __setitem__(self,a,v):
...
def __delitem__(self,a):
...
Method Invocation
Invoking a method is a two-step process.
- Lookup: The
.operator - Method call: The
()operator
>>> s = Stock('GOOG',100,490.10)
>>> c = s.cost # Lookup
>>> c
<bound method Stock.cost of <Stock object at 0x590d0>>
>>> c() # Method call
49010.0
>>>
Bound Methods
A method that has not yet been invoked by the function call operator () is known as a bound method.
It operates on the instance where it originated.
>>> s = Stock('GOOG', 100, 490.10)
>>> s
<Stock object at 0x590d0>
>>> c = s.cost
>>> c
<bound method Stock.cost of <Stock object at 0x590d0>>
>>> c()
49010.0
>>>
Bound methods are often a source of careless non-obvious errors. For example:
>>> s = Stock('GOOG', 100, 490.10)
>>> print('Cost : %0.2f' % s.cost)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: float argument required
>>>
Or devious behavior that’s hard to debug.
f = open(filename, 'w')
...
f.close # Oops, Didn't do anything at all. `f` still open.
In both of these cases, the error is cause by forgetting to include the
trailing parentheses. For example, s.cost() or f.close().
Attribute Access
There is an alternative way to access, manipulate and manage attributes.
getattr(obj, 'name') # Same as obj.name
setattr(obj, 'name', value) # Same as obj.name = value
delattr(obj, 'name') # Same as del obj.name
hasattr(obj, 'name') # Tests if attribute exists
Example:
if hasattr(obj, 'x'):
x = getattr(obj, 'x'):
else:
x = None
Note: getattr() also has a useful default value *arg.
x = getattr(obj, 'x', None)
Exercises
Exercise 4.9: Better output for printing objects
Modify the Stock object that you defined in stock.py
so that the __repr__() method produces more useful output. For
example:
>>> goog = Stock('GOOG', 100, 490.1)
>>> goog
Stock('GOOG', 100, 490.1)
>>>
See what happens when you read a portfolio of stocks and view the resulting list after you have made these changes. For example:
>>> import report
>>> portfolio = report.read_portfolio('Data/portfolio.csv')
>>> portfolio
... see what the output is ...
>>>
Exercise 4.10: An example of using getattr()
getattr() is an alternative mechanism for reading attributes. It can be used to
write extremely flexible code. To begin, try this example:
>>> import stock
>>> s = stock.Stock('GOOG', 100, 490.1)
>>> columns = ['name', 'shares']
>>> for colname in columns:
print(colname, '=', getattr(s, colname))
name = GOOG
shares = 100
>>>
Carefully observe that the output data is determined entirely by the attribute
names listed in the columns variable.
In the file tableformat.py, take this idea and expand it into a generalized
function print_table() that prints a table showing
user-specified attributes of a list of arbitrary objects. As with the
earlier print_report() function, print_table() should also accept
a TableFormatter instance to control the output format. Here’s how
it should work:
>>> import report
>>> portfolio = report.read_portfolio('Data/portfolio.csv')
>>> from tableformat import create_formatter, print_table
>>> formatter = create_formatter('txt')
>>> print_table(portfolio, ['name','shares'], formatter)
name shares
---------- ----------
AA 100
IBM 50
CAT 150
MSFT 200
GE 95
MSFT 50
IBM 100
>>> print_table(portfolio, ['name','shares','price'], formatter)
name shares price
---------- ---------- ----------
AA 100 32.2
IBM 50 91.1
CAT 150 83.44
MSFT 200 51.23
GE 95 40.37
MSFT 50 65.1
IBM 100 70.44
>>>
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